The Enzyme Database

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EC 1.1.3.17     
Accepted name: choline oxidase
Reaction: choline + 2 O2 + H2O = betaine + 2 H2O2 (overall reaction)
(1a) choline + O2 = betaine aldehyde + H2O2
(1b) betaine aldehyde + O2 + H2O = betaine + H2O2
Glossary: choline = (2-hydroxyethyl)trimethylammonium
betaine aldehyde = N,N,N-trimethyl-2-oxoethylammonium
betaine = glycine betaine = N,N,N-trimethylglycine = N,N,N-trimethylammonioacetate
Systematic name: choline:oxygen 1-oxidoreductase
Comments: A flavoprotein (FAD). In many bacteria, plants and animals, the osmoprotectant betaine is synthesized using different enzymes to catalyse the conversion of (1) choline into betaine aldehyde and (2) betaine aldehyde into betaine. In plants, the first reaction is catalysed by EC 1.14.15.7, choline monooxygenase, whereas in animals and many bacteria, it is catalysed by either membrane-bound choline dehydrogenase (EC 1.1.99.1) or soluble choline oxidase (EC 1.1.3.17) [6]. The enzyme involved in the second step, EC 1.2.1.8, betaine-aldehyde dehydrogenase, appears to be the same in those plants, animals and bacteria that use two separate enzymes.
Links to other databases: BRENDA, EXPASY, KEGG, MetaCyc, PDB, CAS registry number: 9028-67-5
References:
1.  Ikuta, S., Imamura, S., Misaki, H. and Horiuti, Y. Purification and characterization of choline oxidase from Arthrobacter globiformis. J. Biochem. (Tokyo) 82 (1977) 1741–1749. [PMID: 599154]
2.  Rozwadowski, K.L., Khachatourians, G.G. and Selvaraj, G. Choline oxidase, a catabolic enzyme in Arthrobacter pascens, facilitates adaptation to osmotic stress in Escherichia coli. J. Bacteriol. 173 (1991) 472–478. [DOI] [PMID: 1987142]
3.  Rand, T., Halkier, T. and Hansen, O.C. Structural characterization and mapping of the covalently linked FAD cofactor in choline oxidase from Arthrobacter globiformis. Biochemistry 42 (2003) 7188–7194. [DOI] [PMID: 12795615]
4.  Gadda, G., Powell, N.L. and Menon, P. The trimethylammonium headgroup of choline is a major determinant for substrate binding and specificity in choline oxidase. Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 430 (2004) 264–273. [DOI] [PMID: 15369826]
5.  Fan, F. and Gadda, G. On the catalytic mechanism of choline oxidase. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 127 (2005) 2067–2074. [DOI] [PMID: 15713082]
6.  Waditee, R., Tanaka, Y., Aoki, K., Hibino, T., Jikuya, H., Takano, J., Takabe, T. and Takabe, T. Isolation and functional characterization of N-methyltransferases that catalyze betaine synthesis from glycine in a halotolerant photosynthetic organism Aphanothece halophytica. J. Biol. Chem. 278 (2003) 4932–4942. [DOI] [PMID: 12466265]
7.  Fan, F., Ghanem, M. and Gadda, G. Cloning, sequence analysis, and purification of choline oxidase from Arthrobacter globiformis: a bacterial enzyme involved in osmotic stress tolerance. Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 421 (2004) 149–158. [DOI] [PMID: 14678796]
8.  Gadda, G. Kinetic mechanism of choline oxidase from Arthrobacter globiformis. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 1646 (2003) 112–118. [DOI] [PMID: 12637017]
[EC 1.1.3.17 created 1978, modified 2005, modified 2007]
 
 
EC 1.1.99.1     
Accepted name: choline dehydrogenase
Reaction: choline + acceptor = betaine aldehyde + reduced acceptor
Glossary: betaine aldehyde = N,N,N-trimethyl-2-oxoethylammonium
choline = (2-hydroxyethyl)trimethylammonium
Other name(s): choline oxidase; choline-cytochrome c reductase; choline:(acceptor) oxidoreductase; choline:(acceptor) 1-oxidoreductase
Systematic name: choline:acceptor 1-oxidoreductase
Comments: A quinoprotein. In many bacteria, plants and animals, the osmoprotectant betaine is synthesized using different enzymes to catalyse the conversion of (1) choline into betaine aldehyde and (2) betaine aldehyde into betaine. In plants, the first reaction is catalysed by EC 1.14.15.7, choline monooxygenase, whereas in animals and many bacteria, it is catalysed by either membrane-bound choline dehydrogenase (EC 1.1.99.1) or soluble choline oxidase (EC 1.1.3.17) [4]. The enzyme involved in the second step, EC 1.2.1.8, betaine-aldehyde dehydrogenase, appears to be the same in plants, animals and bacteria.
Links to other databases: BRENDA, EXPASY, KEGG, MetaCyc, CAS registry number: 9028-67-5
References:
1.  Ameyama, M., Shinagawa, E., Matsuchita, K., Takimoto, K., Nakashima, K. and Adachi, O. Mammalian choline dehydrogenase is a quinoprotein. Agric. Biol. Chem. 49 (1985) 3623–3626.
2.  Ebisuzaki, K. and Williams, J.N. Preparation and partial purification of soluble choline dehydrogenase from liver mitochondria. Biochem. J. 60 (1955) 644–646. [PMID: 13249959]
3.  Gadda, G. and McAllister-Wilkins, E.E. Cloning, expression, and purification of choline dehydrogenase from the moderate halophile Halomonas elongata. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 69 (2003) 2126–2132. [DOI] [PMID: 12676692]
4.  Waditee, R., Tanaka, Y., Aoki, K., Hibino, T., Jikuya, H., Takano, J., Takabe, T. and Takabe, T. Isolation and functional characterization of N-methyltransferases that catalyze betaine synthesis from glycine in a halotolerant photosynthetic organism Aphanothece halophytica. J. Biol. Chem. 278 (2003) 4932–4942. [DOI] [PMID: 12466265]
[EC 1.1.99.1 created 1961, modified 1989, modified 2005]
 
 
EC 1.2.1.8     
Accepted name: betaine-aldehyde dehydrogenase
Reaction: betaine aldehyde + NAD+ + H2O = betaine + NADH + 2 H+
Glossary: betaine = glycine betaine = N,N,N-trimethylglycine = N,N,N-trimethylammonioacetate
betaine aldehyde = N,N,N-trimethyl-2-oxoethylammonium
Other name(s): betaine aldehyde oxidase; BADH; betaine aldehyde dehydrogenase; BetB
Systematic name: betaine-aldehyde:NAD+ oxidoreductase
Comments: In many bacteria, plants and animals, the osmoprotectant betaine is synthesized in two steps: (1) choline to betaine aldehyde and (2) betaine aldehyde to betaine. This enzyme is involved in the second step and appears to be the same in plants, animals and bacteria. In contrast, different enzymes are involved in the first reaction. In plants, this reaction is catalysed by EC 1.14.15.7 (choline monooxygenase), whereas in animals and many bacteria it is catalysed by either membrane-bound EC 1.1.99.1 (choline dehydrogenase) or soluble EC 1.1.3.17 (choline oxidase) [5]. In some bacteria, betaine is synthesized from glycine through the actions of EC 2.1.1.156 (glycine/sarcosine N-methyltransferase) and EC 2.1.1.157 (sarcosine/dimethylglycine N-methyltransferase).
Links to other databases: BRENDA, EXPASY, KEGG, MetaCyc, PDB, CAS registry number: 9028-90-4
References:
1.  Rothschild, H.A. and Barron, E.S.G. The oxidation of betaine aldehyde by betaine aldehyde dehydrogenase. J. Biol. Chem. 209 (1954) 511–523. [PMID: 13192104]
2.  Livingstone, J.R., Maruo, T., Yoshida, I., Tarui, Y., Hirooka, K., Yamamoto, Y., Tsutui, N. and Hirasawa, E. Purification and properties of betaine aldehyde dehydrogenase from Avena sativa. J. Plant Res. 116 (2003) 133–140. [DOI] [PMID: 12736784]
3.  Muñoz-Clares, R.A., González-Segura, L., Mújica-Jiménez, C. and Contreras-Diaz, L. Ligand-induced conformational changes of betaine aldehyde dehydrogenase from Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Amaranthus hypochondriacus L. leaves affecting the reactivity of the catalytic thiol. Chem. Biol. Interact. (2003) 129–137. [DOI] [PMID: 12604197]
4.  Johansson, K., El-Ahmad, M., Ramaswamy, S., Hjelmqvist, L., Jornvall, H. and Eklund, H. Structure of betaine aldehyde dehydrogenase at 2.1 Å resolution. Protein Sci. 7 (1998) 2106–2117. [DOI] [PMID: 9792097]
5.  Waditee, R., Tanaka, Y., Aoki, K., Hibino, T., Jikuya, H., Takano, J., Takabe, T. and Takabe, T. Isolation and functional characterization of N-methyltransferases that catalyze betaine synthesis from glycine in a halotolerant photosynthetic organism Aphanothece halophytica. J. Biol. Chem. 278 (2003) 4932–4942. [DOI] [PMID: 12466265]
[EC 1.2.1.8 created 1961, modified 2005, modified 2011]
 
 
EC 1.2.1.73     
Accepted name: sulfoacetaldehyde dehydrogenase
Reaction: 2-sulfoacetaldehyde + H2O + NAD+ = sulfoacetate + NADH + 2 H+
Glossary: 2-sulfoacetaldehyde = 2-oxoethanesulfonate
taurine = 2-aminoethanesulfonate
Other name(s): SafD
Systematic name: 2-sulfoacetaldehyde:NAD+ oxidoreductase
Comments: This reaction is part of a bacterial pathway that can utilize the amino group of taurine as a sole source of nitrogen for growth. At physiological concentrations, NAD+ cannot be replaced by NADP+. The enzyme is specific for sulfoacetaldehyde, as formaldehyde, acetaldehyde, betaine aldehyde, propanal, glyceraldehyde, phosphonoacetaldehyde, glyoxylate, glycolaldehyde and 2-oxobutyrate are not substrates.
Links to other databases: BRENDA, EXPASY, KEGG, MetaCyc
References:
1.  Krejčík, Z., Denger, K., Weinitschke, S., Hollemeyer, K., Pačes, V., Cook, A.M. and Smits, T.H.M. Sulfoacetate released during the assimilation of taurine-nitrogen by Neptuniibacter caesariensis: purification of sulfoacetaldehyde dehydrogenase. Arch. Microbiol. 190 (2008) 159–168. [DOI] [PMID: 18506422]
[EC 1.2.1.73 created 2008]
 
 
EC 1.14.15.7     
Accepted name: choline monooxygenase
Reaction: choline + O2 + 2 reduced ferredoxin + 2 H+ = betaine aldehyde hydrate + H2O + 2 oxidized ferredoxin
Glossary: betaine = glycine betaine = N,N,N-trimethylglycine = N,N,N-trimethylammonioacetate
betaine aldehyde = N,N,N-trimethyl-2-oxoethylammonium
choline = (2-hydroxyethyl)trimethylammonium
Systematic name: choline,reduced-ferredoxin:oxygen oxidoreductase
Comments: The spinach enzyme, which is located in the chloroplast, contains a Rieske-type [2Fe-2S] cluster, and probably also a mononuclear Fe centre. Requires Mg2+. Catalyses the first step of glycine betaine synthesis. In many bacteria, plants and animals, betaine is synthesized in two steps: (1) choline to betaine aldehyde and (2) betaine aldehyde to betaine. Different enzymes are involved in the first reaction. In plants, the reaction is catalysed by this enzyme whereas in animals and many bacteria it is catalysed by either membrane-bound EC 1.1.99.1 (choline dehydrogenase) or soluble EC 1.1.3.17 (choline oxidase) [7]. The enzyme involved in the second step, EC 1.2.1.8 (betaine-aldehyde dehydrogenase), appears to be the same in plants, animals and bacteria. In some bacteria, betaine is synthesized from glycine through the actions of EC 2.1.1.156 (glycine/sarcosine N-methyltransferase) and EC 2.1.1.157 (sarcosine/dimethylglycine N-methyltransferase).
Links to other databases: BRENDA, EXPASY, KEGG, MetaCyc, CAS registry number: 118390-76-4
References:
1.  Brouquisse, R., Weigel, P., Rhodes, D., Yocum, C.F. and Hanson, A.D. Evidence for a ferredoxin-dependent choline monooxygenase from spinach chloroplast stroma. Plant Physiol. 90 (1989) 322–329. [PMID: 16666757]
2.  Burnet, M., Lafontaine, P.J. and Hanson, A.D. Assay, purification, and partial characterization of choline monooxygenase from spinach. Plant Physiol. 108 (1995) 581–588. [PMID: 12228495]
3.  Rathinasabapathi, B., Burnet, M., Russell, B.L., Gage, D.A., Liao, P., Nye, G.J., Scott, P., Golbeck, J.H. and Hanson, A.D. Choline monooxygenase, an unusual iron-sulfur enzyme catalyzing the first step of glycine betaine synthesis in plants: Prosthetic group characterization and cDNA cloning. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 94 (1997) 3454–3458. [DOI] [PMID: 9096415]
4.  Russell, B.L., Rathinasabapathi, B. and Hanson, A.D. Osmotic stress induces expression of choline monooxygenase in sugar beet and amaranth. Plant Physiol. 116 (1998) 859–865. [PMID: 9489025]
5.  Nuccio, M.L., Russell, B.L., Nolte, K.D., Rathinasabapathi, B., Gage, D.A. and Hanson, A.D. Glycine betaine synthesis in transgenic tobacco expressing choline monooxygenase is limited by the endogenous choline supply. Plant J. 16 (1998) 101–110.
6.  Nuccio, M.L., Russell, B.L., Nolte, K.D., Rathinasabapathi, B., Gage, D.A. and Hanson, A.D. The endogenous choline supply limits glycine betaine synthesis in transgenic tobacco expressing choline. Plant J. 16 (1998) 487–496. [DOI] [PMID: 9881168]
7.  Waditee, R., Tanaka, Y., Aoki, K., Hibino, T., Jikuya, H., Takano, J., Takabe, T. and Takabe, T. Isolation and functional characterization of N-methyltransferases that catalyze betaine synthesis from glycine in a halotolerant photosynthetic organism Aphanothece halophytica. J. Biol. Chem. 278 (2003) 4932–4942. [DOI] [PMID: 12466265]
[EC 1.14.15.7 created 2001, modified 2002 (EC 1.14.14.4 created 2000, incorporated 2002), modified 2005, modified 2011]
 
 


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